Behavior Modification

Running Head: BEHAVIOR CAN BE MODIFIED BY REWARDS AND REINFORCEMENTS Behavior Modification: Desired Behavior can be Created by Proper Reinforcement Natalie Tamayo CUNY Queens College Abstract This experiment is centered on the notation of Behavior Modification. In this experiment a rat is trained to exhibit a targeted behavior called Roll. The desired goal of the experiment is mold the rat into the behavior of producing rolls whenever the light is turned on.One rat took part in this experiment. There were two precursor behaviors to the desired Roll behavior. One behavior was genital grooming and the other was head tucking. First the behavior of genital grooming was consistently reinforced when exhibited. This behavior, after sometime, led in to the secondary behavior of head tucking. Once the rat began to consistently exhibit the behavior of head tucking the reinforcement for the genital grooming was eliminated.Reinforcements were then only provided for the displayed behavior of head tucking thus encouraging this secondary behavior. When the rat begins head tucking on a fairly often basis this behavior leads into the ultimately desired behavior of rolls. Just as was done with the first precursor behavior, reinforcements were then discontinued for this behavior and were only reintroduced for the behavior of roll. Once the rat had proved that she could consistently roll the last step of this experiment was introduced.This part entailed incorporating the dependant variable of light. Now she would only receive reinforcement when the light was turn on and she rolled. The following hypothesis was supported; desired behaviors can be controlled through proper reinforcement and reward. Method Participants One virtual rat was used in this experiment. She was provided through the Sniffy the virtual rat Pro version 3. 0 CD Rom software. Materials In the virtually simulated world of Sniffy; a cage, a light, a magazine and pellets of food were utilized. Behavior Modification This paper aims analyze what behavior modification is and seeks to provide an insight into the process of behavior modification. It revolves around numerous dimensions of this process which are dependant on numerous theories like conditioning and contiguity. It focuses on behavior modification techniques and provides examples for sufficient understanding of the process.Behavior modification Behavior modification is a term which refers to any process achieved from a certain learning theory which is aimed at changing a person's behavior or the way he or she interacts with the outside world.The specific area of behavior modification which is under focus in this paper is the techniques involved in behavior modification. Secondary research is being used for the collection of data and demonstration of examples. Using the behavioral approach The behavioral approach revolves around three different types of behavioral learning theories which are as follows: Contiguity. The theory of contiguit y suggests that a specific stimulus followed by a particular response tends to be followed by the same response again on reoccurrence.It suggests that the stimulus response connections gain full strength on the first interaction of the connection i. e. contiguity. Repetition neither strengthens nor weakens the connection that has already been developed. Guthrie also based his belief on the law of recency which suggested that an organism would respond to a stimulus in the same way as it responded in the most recent encounter with that stimulus. This idea implied that habits once formed were extremely hard to break. However Guthrie suggested that behavior could be broken i. e.new behavior could be formed on the basis of following techniques: 1. Exhaustion Method: Exhaustion Method/Fatigue Method: suggests one should continue to present the stimulus until an organism is too tired to respond in the habitual way. At this point, either a new response will occur or a new stimulus-response habit will form or the organism will do nothing. 2. Threshold Method: suggests presenting the stimulus so faintly that the organism does not respond to it in the habitual manner. Then gradually increase the intensity of the stimulus so that the organism continues not to respond to it.3. Incompatible Stimulus Method: Present the stimulus when the habitual response can’t occur and will lead to occurrence of incompatible response. Classical conditioning Pavlov in his experiment presented dogs with food and observed the dogs salivary responses to the ringing of bell immediately before food was presented. Initially the dogs didn’t respond unless they were presented the food, however after a certain time the dogs started salivating at hearing the sound of the bell because they had started associating the sound of bell with food.There are two major purposes served by classical conditioning: 1,Conditioning automatic responses for example reducing adrenaline levels in humans wi thout the usage of stimuli that would produce such responses. Secondly for creation of stimuli association. There are two different types of stimuli that can be categorized as secondary stimuli or primary stimuli. Stimuli which result in response without any training are called primary response for example pain and food. Stimulus which leads to a response only after training is called secondary stimulus for example the bell in Pavlov’s case.A trainee has to be taught to like or dislike the secondary stimuli. Application of classical conditioning: Animal trainers use classical conditioning to train animals. Usually dog trainers use a light flicker which flickers at different intervals of time following which the dog is given a treat. Simply flick the light, wait for a moment and then give the dog a treat maybe food. After this has been repeated a few times, one may observe that the animal monitors, stares at the treat or maybe looks at the trainer.This is an indication towards formation of an association. The flickering light then becomes a signal for an upcoming reinforcement. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning results in the creation of an association amongst a specific behavior and a specific consequence. This refers to response stimulus conditioning because it leads to an association development amongst the behavior and its following consequence. Consequences have to be clearly linked to behavior. A reinforce refers to anything which makes an event occur more frequently than usual.An organism tends to repeat behavior when the consequences are positive; these are referred to as reinforcers. Similarly an individual tends to reduce a certain kind of behavior if it leads to unfavorable consequences; these are called punishers. As a result of punishment or reinforcement the following scenarios can prevail: †¢ If something good starts and leads to an increase in behavior it is called positive Reinforcement. †¢ When a good thing is taken aw ay the behavior decreases which is called negative Punishment.†¢ If a bad consequence is presented the behavior will decrease which refers to positive Punishment. †¢ When a bad consequence is reduced the behavior would increase which is known as negative Reinforcement. Behavior modification techniques There are five different categories of activities that revolve around numerous dimensions of behavior modification techniques: Development of a new behavior: For example teaching a child to act in desired ways which he hasn’t exhibited before, successive steps can be rewarded until we have reached or attained the final desired behavior.For example if a child to be taught a certain alphabetical spelling list we can reward the child with candy or a desired toy every time the child learns a spelling. This will eventually lead the child to learn all the constituent words of the list. This process is called SHAPING. According to continuous reinforcement principle to teach a child a new behavior which he has never exhibited an immediate reward should be presented after each correct performance. For example provide a dog with a cookie every time it responds to a stimulus in a desired behavior.The negative reinforcement principle suggests that to increase a child’s performance in particularly desired ways, the trainer should reduce undesirable consequences; this can be done by allowing the trainee to avoid the aversive situation by behaving appropriately. The cueing principle suggests that in order to teach a child to remember how to act at specific times the trainer should arrange for the provision of a cue to the correct performance immediately before the action is expected rather than after its incorrect performance.Strengthen a new behavior: encouraging a child for continuation of performance of a previously established behavior leading to little rewards, gradually requires a longer time period. This refers to decreasing reinforcement principl e. According to variable reinforcement principle, for improvement in a child's performance of a certain tasks the child should be presented with an intermittent reward.For example if a child acts according to the desired manner when sitting on the dining table, providing the child with candy immediately will lead the child to repeat that behavior in future. Maintain an established behavior: according to the substitution principle for changing reinforcers when previously effective rewards are not modifying behavior any longer, the reinforcer should be presented immediately before or immediately after the time the more effective reward is presented.Stop an inappropriate behavior: according to the satiation principle to stop a child from acting in a particular way the child must be allowed to continue the undesired act until it becomes boring and the child gets tired of it. For example if you disapprove of a child’s computer usage patterns and you think it’s leading to ad diction you should try not saying anything and encourage the child to do what he is indulged into and eventually there will be a time when the child will get sick of it and will stop doing so naturally.The extinction principle suggests another way to stop inappropriate behavior i. e. to efficiently eradicate a specific behavior one should create such conditions for the child that he/she receives no rewards following the undesired act. For example if you don’t want your child to talk while eating, every time the child indulges in such activity create such a consequence for him which is extremely undesirable, for example scolding the child. This will eventually lead to extinction of that certain behavioral display.The incompatible alternative principle suggests efficient stopping of a certain behavior in a child can be achieved by rewarding an alternative action, whose simultaneous performance with the undesired act isn’t possible. Modify emotional behavior: the avoidanc e principle states in order for a child to be taught to avoid a certain type of scenario the child should be simultaneously exhibited to the situation that is undesired or any form of its representation and some aversive condition. ConclusionBehavior modification is a technique which has been thoroughly and repeatedly analyzed in numerous experiments. These experiments have proved that following a certain series of modification can lead to a change in the behavior of an organism. References: Dimensions of human behavior by Elizabeth Hutchison, sage Pubns ( March 2003 ) Applied behavior analysis by John O Cooper, William L Heward , Edward R Canda. Prentice Hall (December 2006) An introduction to behavioral endocrinology by Randy J. Nelson, Sinauer associates inc ( March 2003 ) Behavior Modification Running Head: BEHAVIOR CAN BE MODIFIED BY REWARDS AND REINFORCEMENTS Behavior Modification: Desired Behavior can be Created by Proper Reinforcement Natalie Tamayo CUNY Queens College Abstract This experiment is centered on the notation of Behavior Modification. In this experiment a rat is trained to exhibit a targeted behavior called Roll. The desired goal of the experiment is mold the rat into the behavior of producing rolls whenever the light is turned on.One rat took part in this experiment. There were two precursor behaviors to the desired Roll behavior. One behavior was genital grooming and the other was head tucking. First the behavior of genital grooming was consistently reinforced when exhibited. This behavior, after sometime, led in to the secondary behavior of head tucking. Once the rat began to consistently exhibit the behavior of head tucking the reinforcement for the genital grooming was eliminated.Reinforcements were then only provided for the displayed behavior of head tucking thus encouraging this secondary behavior. When the rat begins head tucking on a fairly often basis this behavior leads into the ultimately desired behavior of rolls. Just as was done with the first precursor behavior, reinforcements were then discontinued for this behavior and were only reintroduced for the behavior of roll. Once the rat had proved that she could consistently roll the last step of this experiment was introduced.This part entailed incorporating the dependant variable of light. Now she would only receive reinforcement when the light was turn on and she rolled. The following hypothesis was supported; desired behaviors can be controlled through proper reinforcement and reward. Method Participants One virtual rat was used in this experiment. She was provided through the Sniffy the virtual rat Pro version 3. 0 CD Rom software. Materials In the virtually simulated world of Sniffy; a cage, a light, a magazine and pellets of food were utilized.

Adolescent Alcohol Abuse Essay

Over the years, many researchers have dedicated their time and energy to study adolescent alcohol abuse. They have found that there are many factors that contribute to adolescent alcohol abuse. These factors are psychological, environmental, social, and cultural. Not all of these factors play a part in every adolescent who abuses alcohol, but one of these factors is usually present. Psychological disorders have been found in both American, and Taiwan adolescents who abuse alcohol. The health risks of adolescent alcohol abuse are great. Alcohol affects the physiology of a young person. It disrupts the genetics and hormonal balances that are critical in the early development of youngsters. Treatment of alcohol abuse is a great state of change and development. Many therapists, doctors and counselors are trying to incorporate new treatment ideas and methods into the traditional techniques that have been used for years now. It is important to research the factors that contribute to adolescent alcohol abuse because if these factors are detected early, and an adolescent is put into a prevention program the likelihood that they will abuse alcohol will greatly decrease. Psychological Factors. See more:  Manifest Destiny essay According to the research, there have been many psychological problems found in adolescents who abuse alcohol. The majority of the research has been done in order to solve the question of whether or not these psychological factors are present before an adolescent abuses alcohol, or after the alcohol abuse has occurred. In the research done by Rhode, Lewinsohn, and Seeley (1996), they used a community sample of 1,507 adolescents between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. The adolescents were classified into the categories of abstainers, experimenters, social drinkers, problem drinkers, and abuse and/or dependent groups. In this study, 373 subjects met the criteria for depression, 15 were bipolar, 93 suffered from manic core symptoms, and 124 had an anxiety disorder (Rhode et al. , 1996). Furthermore, anxiety disorder and depression were psychological disorders that were more prevalent in female adolescents with alcohol abuse than their male counterparts. Males who abused alcohol tended to suffer from antisocial personality disorder. It is believed that females who suffer from anxiety disorder or depression use alcohol as a self-medication to make them feel better. According to Clark, and Bukstein (1998), one form of antisocial disorder known as conduct disorder lead adolescents to act out and seek out new experiences. This is probably the reason why adolescent males with an antisocial disorder turn to alcohol abuse. According to Rhode (et al. , 1996), â€Å"More than 80% of adolescents with an alcohol use disorder had another psychiatric disorder†¦. † (p. 106). In his study, the alcohol abuse tended to follow rather than proceed the psychiatric disorder. From this, it can be concluded that certain psychological disorders such as antisocial disorder, and depression are a factor in adolescent alcohol abuse. Environmental Factors Many studies have focused on the environmental factors that adolescents are exposed to, and how these factors lead to alcohol abuse. The aim of a study performed by Clark, Lesnick, and Hegedus (1997), â€Å"Was to examine trauma history and other adverse life events in adolescents with alcohol dependence or abuse and to compare them with a sample of community-dwelling adolescents without alcohol use disorder† (p. 1746). This study included 256 adolescents between the ages of fourteen and eighteen (Clark et al. , 1997). Adolescents who abused, or were dependent on alcohol reported more traumas then those in the control group. The types of abuse experienced by males and females tended to differ. Females experienced more sexual abuse, and males tended to be victims of violent acts. Both sexual abuse victims, and victims of violent acts showed increased amounts of alcohol use than those adolescents who were not abused in any way. If subjects experienced a number of traumas, they tended to abuse alcohol more than those that experienced only one trauma or no trauma at all. From this study, it can be concluded that trauma and abuse leads to adolescent alcohol abuse. Social Factors A study done on Hispanic and Black adolescents in the New York inner cities concluded that there were indeed social factors that contributed to adolescent alcohol abuse. The study used a sample of 4,874 Hispanic and African American seventh graders. The purpose of the study was to identify the social risk factors that promote adolescent alcohol abuse in Hispanic and African American (Epstein, Botvin, Baker, & Diaz, 1999). If an adolescent’s friends tended to drink on a consistent basis, he/she showed a greater amount of alcohol abuse than those who did not associate with friends who did drink alcohol. Also, family members play a major part in adolescent alcohol abuse. The family is another social factor that contributes to adolescent alcohol abuse. If an adolescent saw their parent consume alcohol, they also tended to abuse alcohol. Parents were not the only family members that influenced adolescent alcohol abuse; siblings also had an influence. If a sibling abused alcohol, the adolescent models this abuse. Their findings were present in both Hispanic and African American adolescents. Cultural factors. In the study done by Epstein and her collogues, cultural differences were also a factor in adolescent with alcohol abuse. According to Epstein (et al. , 1999), â€Å"Hispanic adolescents consumed more alcohol per drinking occasion and had greater intention to drink in the future than black adolescents. This was true when the models were tested separately for girls and boys† (p. 16). The use of alcohol among Hispanics could be due to the fact that it may be a cultural practice that allows an adolescent to identify with their culture. Religion is another cultural factor that plays a role in adolescent alcohol abuse. African American religions consider the consumption of alcohol a sin, so if an African American practices in their religion they are less likely to abuse alcohol than someone who does not practice their religion. However, this was not a factor for Hispanic adolescent alcohol abuse. A final cultural difference may be that more Hispanic adolescents have immigrated to this country in past years than black adolescents have. Therefore Hispanic adolescents have had the added stress of adapting to a new society. In turn Hispanic adolescents turn to alcohol abuse as a way of coping with their increased stress. Taiwan All of the studies mentioned above were performed in the United States. However, there have been studies done in other countries on adolescent alcohol abuse. One study was done on adolescents living in Taiwan. The results were very interesting. Many of the factors that are presents in American adolescents were also found in adolescents living in Taiwan. According to Chong, Chan, and Cheng (1999), â€Å"Among those successfully interviewed, 411 were males and 363 were females. Their mean age was 15. 23 years† (p. 1389). Like American adolescents who abused alcohol, Taiwan adolescents also had psychological factors presents. The most common psychological disorders found in Taiwan adolescents were disruptive behavior disorder, depression, and antisocial disorder. These disorders were also present in American adolescents. Alcoholism and Health Adolescent alcohol abuse is recognized as a major health concern in the United States. According to Arria and Tarter (1991), â€Å"It is likely that an older adolescents who first consumed alcohol in the preteen years will experience greater alcohol-related medical complications than will an adolescent who has been drinking for a shorter period of time† (p. 52). Although the length of time that an adolescent has been drinking is a major factor related to health, it is not the only one. Other factors may include how much alcohol is consumed at one sitting, and just what age the adolescent began to drink. Very heavy drinking may cause accidental injury. And, drinking at an early age may cause gross developmental complications. Arriea and Tarter (1991) noted that many adolescents also experiment with other drugs, while they are under the influence of alcohol. Other drugs may range from marijuana to crack cocaine and LSD. Using alcohol and other drugs combined can cause serious health risks and concerns. One major concern of adolescent alcohol abuse is the effects that abuse has on puberty. The results of the abuse may be most prevalent in the growth of the adolescent. It has been shown in both human and animal studies that alcohol consumption can stunt the physical growth of an adolescent approaching and during puberty. Arriea and Tarter (1991), stated that, â€Å"normal physical growth is dependent on a complex interaction between genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences† (P. 53). Alcohol severely effects this interaction. Treatment Whenever we talk about alcohol abuse with adolescents, we must talk about the treatment. Without proper treatment, the adolescent will end up in the same place over and over again. In the study done by Bukstein (1994), he stated that, â€Å"treatment for adolescents currently are undergoing rapid changes,? , by reducing their costs and emphasizing less restrictive treatment modalities† (p. 298). Many of the longer 28 or 38 day inpatient programs are being transformed into outpatient or partial hospitalization plans. Because these shorter programs have not been around long enough to gather information for testing, it is unable to tell if they are going to have any kind of affect on the adolescent’s rehabilitation. I feel that these cuts will have a negative effect on the treatment of youngsters. I think that these shorter programs may work for adults, but they will not work well with the adolescents because of the emotional immaturity present in young people. While many researchers believe that traditional treatment programs are the key, there has been some interest in alternative programs. According to Bukstein (1994), many programs are beginning to integrate an array of, â€Å"family or behavioral treatments, health services, vocational and educational services, and recreational activities in addition to 12-step principles† (p.299). This kind of treatment combines traditional 12-step programs with new innovative ideas of reaching the child through various activities. Once again, this kind of treatment is not yet able to be tested because of its immaturity. It will be very interesting to see what kind of affect this treatment will have. Conclusion There are many factors that contribute to adolescent alcohol abuse. These factors may be psychological, environmental, social, or cultural. If these factors were detected in an adolescent at an early age, it could prevent the adolescent form abusing alcohol. Health problems due to heavy alcohol abuse could also be prevented if these factors are detected early enough. Treatment is a crucial part of dealing with an adolescent that is suffering from alcohol abuse. I believe that much research must be done to ensure that methods are being executed properly. There has been some effort to combine new treatment with traditional ones. I believe that this is a good thing. It will be interesting to see if this new treatment will help. References Arria, Amelia M. , Tarter, Ralph E. (1991). The effects of alcohol abuse on the health of adolescents. Alcohol Health and Research World, 15 (1), 52-57. Bukstein, Oscar G. (1994). Treatment of adolescent alcohol abuse and dependence. Alcohol Health and Research World, 18 (4), 296-301. Chong, M. Y. , Chan, K. W. , & Cheng, A. T. A. (1999). Substance use disorders among adolescents in Taiwan: Prevalence, sociodemeographic correlates and psychiatric co-morbidity. Psychological Medicine, 26 (6), 1387-1396. Clark, D. , Lesnick, L. , & Hegedus, A. (1997). Traumas and Other adverse life events in adolescents with alcohol abuse and dependence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36 (12), 1744-1751. Clark, D. , & Bukstein, O. (1998). Psychopathology in adolescent alcohol abuse and dependence. Alcohol Health & Research World 22 (2), 117-121. Epstein, J. , Botvin, G. , & Diaz, T. (1999). Impact of social influences and problem behavior on alcohol use among inner-city hispanic and black adolescents. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 60 (5), 595-604. Rhode, P. , Lewinsohn, P. , & Seeley, J. R. (1996). Psychiatric comoribidity with problematic alcohol use in high school students. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 35 (1), 101-109. Adolescent Alcohol Abuse Juvenile Delinquency.

Taxation - Assignment 2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Taxation - 2 - Assignment Example Correspondence audits usually entail a single issue such as dependent exemptions. Regardless of the three types of audit, IRS tax examiners make decisions as to whether to commend changes to the reported tax or to the audited tax issues. After the tax examiner recommends a change, the taxpayer has the right to appeal or agree with their tax change. The outcome of the taxpayer appeal determines whether the auditor’s recommendations may or may not be collected or assessed. The law states that an assessment of tax must be made within three years from the date the tax return was filed. However, there are circumstances under which this rule does not apply. i) If a taxpayer omits more than 25% of their gross income from their tax returns documentation. From a government point of view, an audit seeks to verify and ascertain the details on taxpayers’ return documentation. This would ensure that every individual is accountable for their tax obligations to the government. Persons at high risks of audits include households and individuals who list their deductions, especially if the deductions in specific categories such as charity or medical expenses are more significant than average. Another group of individuals at a higher risk of audit is professionals who run businesses such as doctors, and lawyers. These professionals often run their businesses on their own and are in charge of accounting functions of the business activities. As such, they are at high risk of IRS audits. b) This would be tax avoidance. Mr. P is considering the time period variable to reduce the burden of tax. It makes good business sense to for MR. P to record the sale of the asset in the previous year where the tax rate is less by

Modern Performance Management Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Modern Performance Management Studies - Essay Example This paper aims to provide a reinforcement of the above school of thought, by examining the practical application of sound human resource management principles laid out in accordance with the theories outlined in MIT Sloan School of Management educator Douglas McGregor's classic work, 'The Human Side of Enterprise (1960)", in which he identified an approach of creating an environment within which employees are motivated by two theories, named by him as Theory X and Theory Y. He was the advocate of Theory Y, which is the practical application of Dr. Abraham Maslow's Humanistic School of Psychology, in another interrelated classic work, "A Theory of Human Motivation (1943)". The paper aims to seek the reasons why one theory prevails over another, as we take a look into the practical implications of the theories in actual examples from the corporate world. Conceptual background: Theory X and Theory Y are at the centre of the human motivation principles outlined in McGregor's work. These are the main postulates of both theories (McGregor, 1960): Theory X: In this the... The average human being likes to be directed, and mainly desires security above everything else. The main consequence being, that it leads to a more authoritarian style of management in the concerned company which may not favour the company's business interests in the longer run. Theory Y: In this theory, management assumes that employees are ambitious, self-motivated, eager to accept greater responsibility, and exercise self-control and self-direction, taking an optimistic view. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work activities, and thus desire to be imaginative and creative in their jobs, when given a chance. There is always an opportunity for greater productivity by giving employees the freedom to do their best. In no uncertain terms, a Theory Y manager would believe, given the right conditions, most people will want to do well at work and there is always a pool of unused creativity in the workforce. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation in itself, and the ultimate goal of a sound HR professional is to remove the barriers that prevent workers from fully actualizing themselves. Modern critics argue that both theories are seldom used explicitly, in any organisation. It is common sense understanding, the theories per se represent unrealistic extremes. Most employers (and employees) fall somewhere relative to the extreme values, and hence,

The Chevron USA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Chevron USA - Essay Example In this connection, the EPA framed regulations in 1981 enabling the nonattainment states to adopt a ‘bubble approach’ to comply with the prescribed standards of air quality. The bubble concept treats the entire plant with multiple sub-plants as one single bubble and permits variations in emission levels as long as the total emissions do not exceed the permissible levels. The moot point is what stationery source means. Whether each subunit is a stationary source or all of them in an industrial grouping? The National Resources Defense Council (NRDC) opposed the bubble concept in the Court of Appeals alleging that the bubble concept was unlawful. Although the Appeals Court agreed with the NRDC’s stand, the Supreme Court where in Chevron an affected party impleaded itself along with the EPA, held that since there was no particular reason adduced in the legislative history of the relevant provision of the Clean Air Act, EPA’s interpretation in a reasonable manne r cannot be found fault with by the judiciary. The Supreme Court held that the â€Å"bubble† theory was a matter of policy which should be rather addressed to legislators or administrators and not the judiciary. The decision is considered a land mark in the administrative law since it allows greater flexibility for the administrative agencies to interpret law which until the decision was the job of judiciary alone. Post Chevron, government agencies enjoy greater freedom in interpreting the law which the Congress has left any issue unexplained or ambiguous (Shultz). The Administrative Procedure Act (APA) 1946 is a federal law governing the manner in which the federal agencies frame regulations and it provides for judicial review of agency decisions. (BarnesGreenBook). Section 706 (2) (A) of the APA provides for the reviewing court to hold any decision as â€Å"arbitrary capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with law†. (BarnesGreenBook) The C hevron case is not only a land mark decision in administrative law but also in the domain of ‘separation of powers’. The case which dealt with the issue of meaning of ‘stationary source’ has now become an oft-cited decision ever since. The bubble concept or plant-wide concept has resulted in calculation of plant emission as a whole instead of calculating the emission of pollutant from each pollution-emitting equipment. This enables industrial units having more than one source of pollutant emitting devices to sustain an increase coming from one device through a corresponding reduction in another device within the same industrial unit. It has been rendered possible due to the Apex court’s examining the bona-fides of an agency through a two-step test. First step is to check whether the legislative history speaks of Congressional deliberations on the precise question at issue. If the legislative intent is clear, the Court must give effect to the Congress ional intent which is unambiguously clear. If not, instead of arriving at its own conclusion, the Court should see whether the agency’s interpretation is ‘based on a permissible construction of the statute’. Thus in the instant case, Justice Stevens examined the statutory text of the Clean Air Act and its legislative history. He found there was no evidence to show that the Congress had

The pragmatic views of Abraham Lincoln Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

The pragmatic views of Abraham Lincoln - Essay Example Abraham Lincoln has been the most debated, analyzed, and scrutinized President in the history of the United States. He was a complex political genius who carried with him the charm of the average citizen.For this reason, Lincoln has often been misrepresented by anecdotes or attributed writings. While some scholars have argued that Lincoln's views on equality, race, and slavery shifted during the course of his career, this is a simplified look at many of his seemingly ambiguous positions. While in his writings and speeches there are references to a position that would allow some slavery in the antebellum period, his actions and words during the Civil War denounced slavery as a national evil. For Lincoln, these moral compromises were made for political expediency and pragmatism. Lincoln's views on race, slavery, and equality did not change throughout his career, but the shifting political foundations of the country dictated Lincoln's position as he strove to maintain a cohesive Union o f states.There is an ample amount of primary reference material available for the study of Lincoln's political and personal views. The 1946 compilation Abraham Lincoln, His Speeches and Writings edited by Roy P. Basler is one of the more complete sources for this area of study. Carl Sanburg remarks in the preface of the book that, "...Abraham Lincoln, is best to be known by an acquaintance with all that he wrote and said."1 The key to Sandburg's notation is that to know Lincoln we must know all that he wrote and said. ... Early in his career he could see the destructive forces of slavery at work on the new nation. In a speech titled "The Perpetuation of our Political Institutions" addressed to the Young Men's Lyceum in Springfield Illinois on January 27, 1838 Lincoln warns, "If destruction be out lot, we must ourselves be its author and finisher. As a nation of freemen, we must live through all time, or die by suicide."2 This statement indicates Lincoln's early inclination to value a united Union that was free, and shows his depth of understanding that a divided Union would lead to self destruction. The speech is a stern lecture on the horrors of lynching slaves and admonishes the reader that respect for the law is the most important attribute in the maintenance of unity. While the speech is clearly aimed at the unconscionable actions taken by the "...pleasure hunting masters of Southern slaves.", it also contains a universal message of equality.3 Lincoln speaks of equality and its association with th e respect for law when he writes, "And, in short, let it become the political religion of the nation; and let the old and the young, the rich and the poor, the grave and the gay, of all sexes and tongues, and colors and conditions, sacrifice unceasingly upon its altars."4 Basler points out that this speech, given when Lincoln was a young man and not yet active outside local politics, has been criticized as being "highly sophomoric".5 Yet, it illustrates Lincoln's core belief that the reverence for law and the moral obligation of equality will need to be shared by all Americans to build a successful future. The inequality of the elitist economic system was addressed in Lincoln's career while running for the General Assembly in Illinois. In an article announcing his

Economics of Energy and Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Economics of Energy and Environment - Essay Example The remaining amount of fuel had been utilised for energy motives. It has been observed that the consumption of energy in the UK fell to its lowest level in the years2010 and 2011 compared to the year 1984. This decrease in energy has been conceived due to the reduction of 18% in the utilisation of gas. From the year 1970, there has been a change in the consumption of fuel from solid fuels to fuel mix from 46,120 million tonnes to 2,437 million tonnes of oil in the year 2011. The consumption of fuel has been substituted by gas which increased from 14,408 million tonnes to 42,378 million tonnes of oil equivalent from the year 1970 to 2011. The consumption of electricity is also observed to have increased by a considerable extent i.e. by 65% which is equivalent to 27,334 million tonnes of oil (Crown, â€Å"Energy Consumption in the United Kingdom: 2012†). The industrial sector is responsible for consuming around 40% of energy which amounted to around 62,333 thousand tonnes of oi l equivalent. On the other hand, the domestic sector and transport are perceived to be utilising nearly 24% and 18% respectively. Other users including public administration, agriculture and commerce are observed to be using 12% of energy. Furthermore, 7% of the energy was consumed for non-energy motives (Crown, â€Å"Energy Consumption in the United Kingdom: 2012†). Domestic Energy Consumption From The Year 1970 To 2011 Source: [1] (Crown, â€Å"Energy Consumption in the United Kingdom: 2012†) In the year 1990, it has been perceived that the industrial sector consumed around 24% of energy which signifies that there was fall in energy consumption in the industrial sector as compared to the period of 1970.... This essay stresses that the households are also required to adopt innovative and certified household electrical appliances and products with the intention of better utilisation of energy. Moreover, households are required to adopt latest products which are energy efficient with the motive of ascertaining that energy is consumed at a minimum level. The households are required to acquire technologies which emit carbon in a minimised manner. Furthermore, these innovative and low carbon emitting technologies will facilitate households with better power as well as money saving opportunities. The increased price of energy will initiate households to acquire more innovative technologies for producing renewable sources of energy. This paper makes a conclusion that it can be comprehended that the prices of energy is likely to increase for households, as the current market prices only pay for returns to existing energy production. By raising the regulation and costs of existing energy production, and providing grants and subsidies to encourage the adoption of new technology, the government is rebalancing the costs of energy consumption more in favour of low carbon technologies. In the long run, combined with technological developments making such technologies more affordable, and regulations requiring that they are used, there will be a shift toother non-renewable sources of energy in order to improve energy efficiency, preserve energy for future consumption, as well as reducing carbon emission.

SURVEY BASED ON AN ETHNOGRAPHY DESIGN Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

SURVEY BASED ON AN ETHNOGRAPHY DESIGN - Essay Example If we can identify such conditions, it is possible to take steps to both, manage an effective cure, and prevent further incidents of these illnesses. For this reason, we are attempting to identify what possible areas of child nutrition need to be addressed. In an attempt to understand the possible sources of malnutrition in young children, we request all parents who have minors at home to participate in this study. All you are required to do is to fill out the attached questionnaire to your best knowledge. Your names are not required, as this assures the confidentiality of individual findings. If the study finds any cause for concern, your local health services will be intimated so that quick preventive measures can be taken. We thank you for your time and participation. Part I: B Questionnaire 1. Case no.______________ 2. Age of child:_____________ 3. Weight of child: _____________ 4. Height of the child: _______________ 5. Is the weight within the limits of the child's age norm? a. Yes b. No If no, then is the child: Underweight Overweight 6. Is the child suffering from any respiratory trouble at the moment? a. Yes b. No If yes, please describe the complaint: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. ... Does the child eat adequately each day? a. Yes b. No If No, please explain. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. Please indentify which of the following foods you child eats adequately on a daily basis. a. Fruit and Vegetables i. Not at all ii. 1-2 serving iii. 3-4 servings b. Rice / Grains i. Not at all ii. 1-2 serving iii. 3-4 servings c. Meats / Pulses and Lentils i. Not at all ii. 1-2 serving iii. 3-4 servings d. Dairy products i. Not at all ii. 1-2 serving iii. 3-4 servings e. Breads i. Non processed _______ servings ii. Processed ________ servings 10. Please describe a typical meal eaten at your home (what items are cooked; and in what manner?) ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 11. Are there particular items that the child refuses to eat / is not allowed to eat? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 12. Does the child have any food allergies? a. Yes b. No If Yes, please mention:

Criminal Justice Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Criminal Justice - Assignment Example This essay argues that while both conflict and consensus are existent in the United States, the country tends towards the conflict perspective. While both formulations of these perspectives are problematic, the consensus perspective has seemingly overly optimistic slant. In essence, it’s arguing that the law functions outside of undue influence, in a completely equitable means of agreed upon functions. It seems this view completely ignores things, such as the overwhelming privileged inherent in attending law school, or that becoming a judge requires significant political acumen. While it acknowledges that there are diverse and competing interests within a cultural framework, it assumes that the social structure exists outside of them, created through some metaphysical objectivity; this is logically inconsistent, as it fails to take into account that the very people who constructed the legal system were influenced by these same pernicious motivations. Even so, most citizens and scholars recognize some truth to the consensus model. While the Supreme Court structure in American society is understood to be highly reliant on the personal backgrounds of the individual justices, society has objectively accounted for this and openly negotiates how personal bias will be used towards equitable means. While this may be a highly reductionist take on the process of law, as a conflict argument would be that even the democratic voting process is indicative of oppressive power structures, in these instances there is at least the social movement towards equitable democratic consensus. Conversely, the conflict paradigm aligns the social structure as a means for powerful entities to continue their social domination, and it is this perspective that is most predominant in the United States. Whereas the consensus perspective seems somewhat idealized, the conflict perspective is in contains a healthy

The Battle at Belmont Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Battle at Belmont - Essay Example ucah to stage a demonstration against Leonindas Polk Confederate general to stop undertaking of strengthening from Polk to Sterling price and Thompson in Missouri (Hughes, 1991). On the evening of the sixth, Grant boarded two brigades summing to 3114 men on Cairo’s river transport and Bird’s point, and proceeded down the river a distance of about 8 miles. Later that night Grant received an information about Confederates crossing at Columbus with the intended plans to censor off Colonel Oglesby’s stake, when asked about that , excuse was given that Ogleby’s had left just to try play Jeff Thompsons rebel force and got to be around Indian Ford on the St.Francis. This book also explains how the gunboats opened the battle, and explains the involvement of Colonel James C. Tappan who was a democrat and served as a judge in 1861, Augustus C. Watsons, a wealthy planter who organized an artillery company of New Orleans, and Major general Polk who found Tappan at the riverbank looking for a boat to transport him back across the river (Hughes, 1991). Later after the gunboats actions with the battery’s parrot guns burst which executed two and hurt three, Tappan and Beltzhoover deployed their minor forces in defense of the two streets which were approaching the Belmont landing and Grant shown as the under cover of the gun boats. It also explains the actions of the Confederates left, Brigadier General Pillow reached at front line of Tappan’s on the Belmont claiming that he didn’t get sufficient time to deploy his line before assailed by the Federals. Though the Pillows deployment is explained to have been awkward. The actions of the Confederate right, they progressed no good, however being better displayed from the position of both terrain and intersection. Tappan saw Russell deploying for the progress and ordering his command headfirst, and enforced Tappan to charge to 70 yards before Russell ran out of ammunition. After the Russell’s command discharged to

Personal Statement For University Essay Example for Free

Personal Statement For University Essay My intended major is Economics. My main interest in Economics lies in the field of macroeconomics and the principles that are involved. Macroeconomics has a way of showing how different policies are intertwined; such has policies in Healthcare regarding retirement benefits to how the world’s interest rate plays a role in our daily banking activities. When I graduated from kindergarten, I lived in Shanghai for a while because of my father’s job. At that time, of course I could not speak Chinese so I faced language barrier. However, I had such as experience so I have been interested in Chinese and other countries’ culture from my parents’ influence. I started to learn English, French (when I was junior high school student) and Chinese (when I was high school student) and I went to classroom which is for studying Japanese for foreigner country children to assist. To be interested in learning foreign languages lead me to be interested in foreign countries’ culture and also I felt strongly interested in economics such as what my country economy is, how economic growth is going on in the world, if America economics situation changed, how it influenced to the world and so on with age. From that I started to be interested in activities of international authorization and it led me to be interested in the United Nations. On 12 May, 2008 Sichuan earthquake made me focus on world economics more than before. The earthquake killed many children. I had strong impact when I watched on TV. Some parents said â€Å"My child died because of school building is an old! Children who are rich could go good quality building school so they could survive! This is not a Natural disaster! This is Man-made disaster! †. Some of children â€Å"I want to say thank you to my school to save my life†. It told the gap between rich people and poor people. I had very big mistake thinking that in China’s economy is growing up very much so I thought the gap between rich and poor is going to disappear. I want to remove this gap so I want to study about world economics and I want to work for United Nation. I am not a greedy or selfish person. I am driven, straightforward and ambitious. I know what I want to be in life and I know how to get what I want. I too have come to love consumerist America and all the creature comforts that it promises to those who can afford them. While I have no intention of becoming a Donald Trump, I do wish for a comfortable life for myself and my family. To be able to provide for my family and to ensure that my children will also have the same opportunities to succeed in life as I have by getting a good education at not only the college level but a Masters degree as well in their chosen professions.

Concepts in HR Managements

Concepts in HR Managements All around developed corporate system of an association grants to create arrangements and strategies that will help the association to develop in spite of the flimsiness of the monetary conditions or changes in the market. HR is a capacity in an association which gives the base to the corporate procedure of the association. Keeping up a legitimate arrangement with the organizations corporate methodology and human asset technique is vital for the execution of the association. Taking after parts assesses the arrangement of corporate procedure of Vodafone with the HR methodology which has been set up. a) Internal and outer condition in connection to the HR technique Vodafone is a gigantic association in the business and there are a few calculates the outside condition and also in the inward condition which posture difficulties to the human asset administration system embraced in the association. The opposition is getting solid in the business and this prompts detailing of powerful human asset techniques to enlist skilled individuals so as to face the opposition and be focused in the market. Interior condition of the HR technique ought to concentrate on preparing and advancement parts of the workers at Vodafone. Representative correspondence angle likewise should be record in the inner condition of the HR methodology inside the organization. Another angle which should be considered in the interior condition is representative strengthening. Representatives should be enabled in the association and it will help the association by delivering capable workforce which accomplishes the upper hand. b) Vertical and Horizontal joining of HRM Vertical and Horizontal joining are essential words in vital HR administration. These two combinations are measured as basic components in connection to the companys HR technique and the corporate procedure. Vodafone New Zealand has worried on both vertical and flat joining of the HR system. The system has been composed as an association wide approach and the applicable character has been conceded for the technique. The technique has planned understanding with the mission and goals of the organization and by executing the specific system the association hopes to take the most extreme of the workers by engaging them to do the right thing. c) Role of HRM for building up solid administration and hierarchical change HRM assumes a principle part in any association in making solid administration and starting hierarchical change HR procedure of the association is the hidden component of making pioneers in the association. Vodafones HRM is assuming a conclusive part during the time spent setting up solid initiative and encouraging authoritative change. The corporate culture has been allowed to encourage workers who show magnificent authority aptitudes and strategies of prizes contains on perceiving pioneers in the association and compensating them. Along these lines it can be inferred that Vodafone New Zealand Companys HRM assumes a noteworthy part during the time spent setting up administration and encouraging the change which prompts be aggressive in the market. As a conclusion, it is obvious that arrangement of the corporate technique is a fundamental assignment keeping in mind the end goal to upgrade the efficiency and execution of the association. Vodafone has coordinate the HR technique with the corporate procedure where giving careful consideration to its center business operation situations and the contenders. The HR technique has been incorporated vertically and on a level plane where it takes into account build up solid authority and hierarchical change in the organization. In this manner, Vodafone has accomplished a considerable measure through the arrangement of their corporate and HR systems. Address No 05 Adjust scorecard Adjust scorecard is a technique which give a 3600 assessment of a business association and it has been exhibited by Kalpan R.S and Norton D.P in the time of 1992. This approach has been measured as a main execution measure which gives a quick and finish perspective of the business association. Adjust scorecard approach will introduce the points of interest of monetary activities together with the operational activities on inside procedures of the association, consumer loyalty and the associations development and change exercises which execute as the drivers of future money related execution. Adjusted scorecard technique has been acknowledged, modified and connected by numerous business associations over the world since they have perceived this specific strategy as a conceivable supporter for the accomplishment of the association. The adjusted scorecard approach takes a gander at the vision and system of the association in four alternate points of view as takes after; Financial Customer Internal Business Processes Organizational Learning and Growth Vodafone has acknowledged this specific approach all together measure the viability of its HR methodology. Since the association is managing part of workers, it is indispensable to build up a sound procedure which is adjusted to the business targets and objectives of the association. In this manner key choices are being made by considering the points of view which has been presented in the adjusted scorecard approach which helps the association to accomplish the operational incredibleness. Best practice Best practice idea or the instrument in HRM grounded on an announcement that there are an arrangement of HRM practices which are being drilled generally since they are the best in any condition and will guide the association to achieve prevalent authoritative exhibitions. This apparatus wont consider the setting of the association works and best practices will be connected to the association. Vodafone has embraced a few thoughts of the prescribed procedures. Particular enlisting is one illustration which can be talked about in connection to the association. Association considers various calculates the course of enlisting a representative and guarantee the best worker is being contracted. Facilitate, association takes after a 3600 execution examination technique to assess the workers as led in many organizations on the planet. The correspondence procedure is additionally been dynamic since the association rouses the recommendations from the specialists in connection to the work that they perform. Contender Benchmarking Measuring execution of a business contrasted with the other association who are contending in the market convey more benefits to an association. It is vital to know for a firm their own particular measures and contrast it against others with recognize the position of the firm which it possesses contrasted with others in the market Benchmarking has been utilized as a strategy for measuring an associations execution against the execution of different firms. This will help an association to distinguish the accepted procedures and to take pertinent activities to enhance the associations own execution. Vodafone for this situation, likens it methodologies in HRM with the markers of the business and choices were made in light of the outcomes. Since Vodafone is a set up organization in New Zealand there are no significant players in the business. As of the perspective of the players, Vodafone is the lead in the business and contenders are contrasting themselves and this association. HRM. Other HR material HR measurements are being utilized by most business firms in New Zealand since HR measurements help business firms to make known qualities and shortcoming of an association. Thus, the association can comprehend the zones which they have to accentuation on in connection to creating sound methodologies of HRM. The measurements are indispensable for the association to recognize and asses the productivity of the procedures which have been executed. A few HR measurements have been perceived which can be utilized to dissect the methodologies of business association and a portion of the HR measurements utilized by the Vodafone as takes after; Vodafone utilizes the a few frameworks to assess the accomplishment and disappointments of the HR activities. HR measurements evaluates the cost of the procedures and taking after are the Vodafone has started in connection to its human asset advancement. Cost for each Hire Revenue created per Employee Absenteeism Rate of workers Turnover Cost Percentage of workers who leave for pay associated reasons The above instruments can be considered as helpful apparatuses for Vodafone during the time spent measuring the viability of the HR procedure for the association. The association can have a clearer picture through the appropriation of the considerable number of measures said above and do pertinent conformities in the HR methodologies to make the ideal yield for the association.

China Overpopulation Solutions

China Overpopulation Solutions Over population is one of the serious issue that today’s world is facing. China is known as the country with the highest population (CIA). In order to prevent their massive population growth, China introduced the â€Å"One-Child Policy†. It is a policy implemented by the Chinese government with the purpose of controlling the enormous population in People’s Republic Of China. With the establishment of One-Child Policy, there are a lot of benefits and impacts to Chinese society and family. Regarding this topic, this essay will illustrate the positive and negative effects of this policy. After the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, China’s population was approaching one billion-mark, which concerned the new Chinese government. Because of the overwhelmed population growth, Chinese citizens were encouraged to have only two children per family in late 1978. The policy helped to decline almost half of population growth in China during that time but it did not reach their expectation. Later in 1979, China’s leader Deng Xiaoping introduced the One-Child Policy, requiring a family to have only one child. The Central Committee of Chinese Communist Party formally instituted One-Child Policy on September 25th, 1980 (Pletcher, 2014). Along with this burdensome policy, it comes with two main positive effects, social and family. As for the boon social effect, the most obvious effect is that it limits the population growth efficiently. It is seen that the population was decreased by over a half. Since 1979, experts at the national Population and Family Planning Commission of China said, the policy has prevented more than four hundred million births in the country (Jaime FlorCruz, 2011). After the introduction of the One-Child Policy, the fertility rate in China fell down from over three births per woman in 1980 to approximately 1.54 in 2011 (Data from World Bank, 2014). Moreover, the reduction in the rapid growth has reduced some serious issues that cause by overpopulation like health, education, law enforcement, and other destructions. Another social consequence is the economic growth. When there is higher in the birth rate, the slower of the economic growth occurs, thus One-Child Policy could have contributed to the increase of economic growth. With the lower population, the bureau could provide their people with a high living standard. They might get a high level of schooling, perfect healthcare as well as other accessibility. Then people will lead to be the high quality, which are very crucial for innovations and creations, to develop their count ry for sustained economic growth. Obviously, China is one of the World’s largest economic in term of the population, but in fact, the GDP per capital still low in some area. According to Prof. Zhang’s research during 1978-1998, 28 Chinese provinces, found that the lower the birth rate, the faster the economic growth. The annual growth rate of the real per capital income in that period was as high as 8.1 percent. At the same time, the birth rate was very low—at only 2 percent (Louisa Wah Hansen, 2013). Simultaneously, the policy has positively effect the family as well. The first thing is the high responsibility in the family. This mean that the parents are able to focus on their only one child and allow them to live in a more safety and wealthy environment under their heedfulness, thus the child would receive much love and warmth from them. To add on, this policy leads to less expense in the family budget. With fewer members, family could settle better in the pr osperous life, and won’t get into hardship because of carrying so many children. Along with those benefits the essay has mentioned, One-Child policy also scatters a lot of negative effects to the Chinese society and family. Since One-child policy has been established, the population growth rate in China has been declined from 0.9 percent in 2000 to 0.48 percent in 2012, which is leaded to the lack of human resources (World Bank). Recently, the government is very concern about the lack of human resources, that’s why they ease one-child policy and allows couples to have two children if they were both born without siblings (BBC, 2013). Moreover China is the country, which has a high preference for son, rather than daughter that is the cause of sex imbalances. One-Child policy has made China become the country, which has male population, more than female. According to Business Insider, there were 51 million men more than women in China 2010. In every 100 newborns girls, there are 120 boys, which is the highest sex ratio in the world (Sam, 2013). In addition be cause of the One-Child policy, the birth population is decreasing while the aging is continuing on increasing from day to day that lead to age dependency. The age of group of people from 0-14 decreased 6.29 percent, from 15-59 increased 3.36 percent, group of 60 and over increased 2.93 percent and group of 65 and over increased to 1.91 percent (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011). Age dependency will put more pressure to the son of the family to earn more money to support the family and also make the economics of country goes down since the decreasing of the workers. Moreover, female infanticide has happened in China for a long time; Chinese girls are twice as likely to die in their first year of life as boys (Infanticide in china,†). Despite the democratic nature of Chinese community, many parents consider that having a son is a crucial element of providing for their old age. Therefore in severe cases, a baby is killed if it is not of the preferred sex, because of t he pressure not to have more than one child (BBC). In addition, the absence of a sibling does not define the outcome of a child’s social growth. For the single-child, the nature and structure of his or her family organization can be the adaptation factor for his or her lack of sibling contact. Children with siblings often exchange amongst each other their respective academic and social backgrounds – an advantage that single-children don’t have. Single-children tend to be influenced more by self-absorbed instincts, commanding more attention in their personal homes. Because parents tend to treat their single-child the way standard parents treat their first-born (with more attention and care due to lack of experience), single-children will generally be more relying on their parents and less independent (Xuefeng). As a result of the one-child policy, a single person can be supporting both their parents and their four grandparents. This forces the parents and grandpa rents to depend more on retirement savings or pensions, which many people don’t have. If those fail, everything depends on the one child. If that child can’t support their family, or if the only one child dies, the parents and grandparents will have no one to help them, and no money to support them. So when they lose their only hope, they will full of depression and no one will be look after them when they get older (rhee71, 2009). As the essay has analyzed, we can see that this policy had contributed a lot of benefits to the society as well as the family in this past few decades. From my perspective, I think China should maintains this One-Child policy because it will helps China to become more advanced, not only in the economic nor social field, but also to promote the human rights. At the same time, there need to have some changes to this policy such as reformation or ease this policy and allow some family to have their second child regarding their family condition like what Two-Child Policy has adopted in late 2013, by letting the family having their second child if one of their parents is an only child. References: CIA. (n.d.). East Southeast Asia:: China Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html Pletcher, K. (n.d.). One-child policy, 2014 Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1710568/one-child-policy Louisa Wah Hansen. (n.d.). One Child Policy: Bane or Boon for Economic Development? Retrieved from http://www.bschool.cuhk.edu.hk/program/article.aspx?id=B07B55F3517C Jaime FlorCruz. (2011, October 29).China copes with promise and perils of one-child policy. Retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/28/world/asia/china-one-child/ Fertility rate. (2014, January 10). Retrieved from http://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_met_y=sp_dyn_tfrt_inidim=country:CHNdl=enhl=enq=total fertility rate china World Bank. (n.d.). Population growth rate: China Retrieved from http://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=24c=chl=en BBC. (2013, November 18). China media: One-child policy. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-24983007 Sam, R. (2013, November 15). Heres the china demographics chart that actually scares us. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/country-rankings-of-sex-ratio-at-birth-2013-11 National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2011, April 28). Communiquà © of the national bureau of statistics of peoples republic of china on major figures of the 2010 population census[1] (no. 1). Retrieved from http://web.archive.org/web/20131108022004/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110428_402722244.htm Infanticide in china. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.allgirlsallowed.org/infanticide-china-statistics BBC. (n.d.). Female infanticide. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/abortion/medical/infanticide_1.shtml Xuefeng, C. (n.d.). The social impact of chinas one-child policy. Retrieved from http://web.mit.edu/lipoff/www/hapr/summer03_security/CHEN.pdf rhee71. (2009, March 25). Disadvantages of china’s one-child policy. Retrieved from http://rhee71.edublogs.org/2009/03/25/disadvantages-of-china’s-one-child-policy/

The Lumbee Problem Essays -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first reading was the preface and the fourth chapter from the book, â€Å"The Lumbee Problem: The Making of an American Indian People†, entitled, â€Å"What are they trying to do now?† In this reading, the author, Karen I. Blu, examines the political history of the Indians of Robeson County, North Carolina and goes into detail about her findings during her visit there between 1967 and 1968. Blu argues that the political history of the Lumbee Indians was greatly affected by the relationships between them and non-Indians as well as each other’s perceptions of one another. The fourth chapter focuses on the Black-Indian coalition that was formed during this time and the details surrounding its emergence, objectives, and achievements. Blu noted that the three specific aims of the coalition were: â€Å"(1) the registration of non-White voters, (2) the election of non-Whites to county offices, and (3) the active participation of non-Whites in t he county Democratic Party organization.† The coalition was successful in their first two goals as the registration of non-White voters increased noticeably in 1968 and one man supported by the coalition was elected. However, these successes were eclipsed by the facts that the registration of White voters also increased and the elected candidate that was supported by the coalition was a man who was also solidly supported by Whites. Despite these slight failures, the coalition succeeded in getting non-Whites to actively part...

The Evil of Lago Essay -- Literary Analysis, Shakespeare

The Evil of Iago Shakespeare has written many works with various villains, but out of all of them, without a doubt the most sinister one is Iago. Most of the antagonists in Shakespeare's plays have valid clear motives for the troubles the cause. Iago on the other had does not, for the most part he just has hatred for the world especially Othello. He is the main character of the play in the sense that he is the cause of all conflict in Othello. All of the problems he causes are through lies, treachery, and manipulation. Some of his hate is fuelled by jealousy and revenge. The ironic part is that he wants to be known as "honest Iago". Iago is the epitome of evil as he manipulates those who trust him without just reason or remorse. Iago is an evil character as while he has no legitimate reason for his evil plans, he rationalizes the reasons for his actions and still sets out to ruin the lives of those around him. He hates Michael Cassio, for receiving the lieutenancy instead on himself. Ranting to Roderigo, he says, â€Å"[Cassio is] mere prattle without practice/Is all his soldiership†¦And I, of whom his eyes had seen proof†¦must be beleed and calmed. (I.i.27-32). Iago believes that he has been unjustly overlooked for the position, as he is clearly more qualified than Cassio. He also believes Cassio has slept with his wife, he â€Å"fear[s] Cassio with [his] nightcap(II.i.329)." Though he hates Cassio, much of his hate is directed towards Othello. It may be as Othello has given Cassio the promotion, but Iago does not give that reason, instead he says, â€Å"I hate the Moor,/And it is thought abroad that ‘twixt my sheets/’Has done my office. (I.iii.429-431) Iago believes that both Othello and Cassio have been with his wife. He has no evidence o... ...fuses to divulge information, he says, â€Å"Demand me nothing: what you know, you know/From this time forth I never will speak word. (V.ii.355-356) Iago shows no remorse for his actions, even refusing to come clean or ask for some sort of forgiveness when he is caught. Iago is the epitome of evil as he manipulates those who trust him without just reason or remorse. He only driven by hatred, with has no legitimate reason for his evil plans. Iago is seen as an honest man, and he uses this as leverage to spread lies and manipulate without suspicion. And when all is said and done, he shows no remorse for what he has done. Iago is truly evil to the core, continually playing a game of deception, with everyone, the audience, even himself. He has depth and his actions are the main drive of the play. Iago, with his hatred and amorality, is an example of a perfect villain.

The Origination Of Punk Rock Essays -- essays research papers fc

The Origination of Punk Rock   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The time was in the mid-seventies, there was a void in the music industry that needed to be filled. This need for a new sound was aptly filled by punk rock, a new type of sound that had evolved from mostly rock and a little pop music. The focus of this paper is on punk rock and it’s ample beginnings, early pioneers of the new sound, punk rock listener’s cultural background and their ideas as a whole, bands influenced by the punk rock movement, and the state of punk rock today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The year is 1974, this year marks the birth of punk rock (1974). There is controversy as to where punk started out at, some say it began in London while others say it started out in New York City. It can be safe to say that two very distinct sounds classified as punk originated at about the same in both London and New York City (Punk). Punk rock began in the bars and nightclubs until the bands garnered enough support to receive a record contract.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the punk rock explosion occurred in the mid-seventies, a number of new, excitingly innovative bands burst upon the scene. Bands like the Ramones, The Clash, The Velvet Underground, The Virgin Fugs, Patti Smith, The New York Dolls, Iggy Pop and The Stooges, and the punk band with the most success, The Sex Pistols. The thing that made punk rock so unlike anything the music industry had heard before was the notable lack of talent displayed on the musician’s part. Not to say that all punk bands were devoid of any talent, just that anyone with second-rate instruments and the ability to play at least three chords on the guitar could form a punk band. This is part of what punk’s appeal was, it was a new sound that appealed to many of the youths of that era. As Johnny Ramone, the guitarist for the Ramones, stated, â€Å"We were new at writing songs and new at playing our instruments, so we couldn’t write anything too complicated, really† ( 1974). Punk rock bands often had a flair for the flamboyant, not just with their appearance but with their humor, sarcasm, and often carelessness about society and social norms. For example, The Virgin Fugs, their outlook on life is often displayed in the titles of their songs. Songs like â€Å"I Saw The Best Minds of My Generation Rot†, â€Å"Kill For Peace†, and â€Å"New Amphetamine Shriek† captured the F... ..., Bad Brains were all heavily influenced by the punk revolution (History). Also, bands like Nirvana and Pearl Jam seem to have the mind frames of punk rockers and were undoubtedly influenced by them, the sound doesn’t carry over into their own music.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Punk, as it was really intended, will never become commercialized and incorporated as a large part of the music scene. But then again, punk was based on rebellion against mainstream culture and to be publicized and critically acclaimed would be contradictory to the basis of everything punk stands for. True, one can see bands on MTV that claim to be punk, but the true hardcore punk fans will tell you that they are posers. The industrialized, commercialized, mainstream music seen on MTV is really more like punk/pop, it’s good music that may have been influenced by punk, but not true punk rock.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited â€Å"A History of Punk† http://www.fastnbulbous.com/punk.htm â€Å"Punk† http://www.music.warnerbros.com/rocknroll/cmp/episode9.html â€Å"The Birth of Punk† http://www.pqdweb?TS=953580845&Did=000000042640912&Mtd=1&Fmt=3&Sid=1&Idx=21&Deli=1&3/20/00 The Origination Of Punk Rock Essays -- essays research papers fc The Origination of Punk Rock   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The time was in the mid-seventies, there was a void in the music industry that needed to be filled. This need for a new sound was aptly filled by punk rock, a new type of sound that had evolved from mostly rock and a little pop music. The focus of this paper is on punk rock and it’s ample beginnings, early pioneers of the new sound, punk rock listener’s cultural background and their ideas as a whole, bands influenced by the punk rock movement, and the state of punk rock today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The year is 1974, this year marks the birth of punk rock (1974). There is controversy as to where punk started out at, some say it began in London while others say it started out in New York City. It can be safe to say that two very distinct sounds classified as punk originated at about the same in both London and New York City (Punk). Punk rock began in the bars and nightclubs until the bands garnered enough support to receive a record contract.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the punk rock explosion occurred in the mid-seventies, a number of new, excitingly innovative bands burst upon the scene. Bands like the Ramones, The Clash, The Velvet Underground, The Virgin Fugs, Patti Smith, The New York Dolls, Iggy Pop and The Stooges, and the punk band with the most success, The Sex Pistols. The thing that made punk rock so unlike anything the music industry had heard before was the notable lack of talent displayed on the musician’s part. Not to say that all punk bands were devoid of any talent, just that anyone with second-rate instruments and the ability to play at least three chords on the guitar could form a punk band. This is part of what punk’s appeal was, it was a new sound that appealed to many of the youths of that era. As Johnny Ramone, the guitarist for the Ramones, stated, â€Å"We were new at writing songs and new at playing our instruments, so we couldn’t write anything too complicated, really† ( 1974). Punk rock bands often had a flair for the flamboyant, not just with their appearance but with their humor, sarcasm, and often carelessness about society and social norms. For example, The Virgin Fugs, their outlook on life is often displayed in the titles of their songs. Songs like â€Å"I Saw The Best Minds of My Generation Rot†, â€Å"Kill For Peace†, and â€Å"New Amphetamine Shriek† captured the F... ..., Bad Brains were all heavily influenced by the punk revolution (History). Also, bands like Nirvana and Pearl Jam seem to have the mind frames of punk rockers and were undoubtedly influenced by them, the sound doesn’t carry over into their own music.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Punk, as it was really intended, will never become commercialized and incorporated as a large part of the music scene. But then again, punk was based on rebellion against mainstream culture and to be publicized and critically acclaimed would be contradictory to the basis of everything punk stands for. True, one can see bands on MTV that claim to be punk, but the true hardcore punk fans will tell you that they are posers. The industrialized, commercialized, mainstream music seen on MTV is really more like punk/pop, it’s good music that may have been influenced by punk, but not true punk rock.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited â€Å"A History of Punk† http://www.fastnbulbous.com/punk.htm â€Å"Punk† http://www.music.warnerbros.com/rocknroll/cmp/episode9.html â€Å"The Birth of Punk† http://www.pqdweb?TS=953580845&Did=000000042640912&Mtd=1&Fmt=3&Sid=1&Idx=21&Deli=1&3/20/00

The Significance of Suicide in Hamlet

The Significance of Suicide in Hamlet The concept of suicide is one that is greatly contemplated and discussed by Hamlet and other characters in William Shakespeare's play. It can be seen through two of Hamlet's soliloquies and his overall demeanor throughout the play. Hamlet has many issues that he must deal with such as the death of his father and the marriage of his uncle and mother. These two incidents led Hamlet to consider the extreme act of suicide to escape the fate that he had been bestowed. Although Hamlet did not commit suicide, in the end the path that he took inevitably led to his suicidal intentions and his eventual downfall.The contemplation of suicide threatens Hamlet and various characters in the play leading to the demise of the characters and the kingdom of Denmark. The sudden and tragic death of King Hamlet left the kingdom of Denmark and more importantly his son, Prince Hamlet, in a state of distress; as a quick fix to this problem Claudius married Gertrude. In t he beginning of the play, after Hamlet's confrontation with Claudius, he states in his soliloquy that, â€Å"O, that this too too solid flesh would melt / Thaw and resolve itself into a dew! Or that the Everlasting had not fix'd / His canon ‘gainst self-slaughter! O God! God! †(Act I, Sc. 2) Hamlet clearly expresses his Christian beliefs and his fear of being punished for â€Å"self-slaughter. † He believes that it is better to live in his current state then be damned to hell in the afterlife. One may view this outburst as his method of venting or an over exaggerated teenage rant. For it seems that Hamlet is not capable of dealing with the death of his father or the marriage, however incestuous it may be, in a reasonable and non-destructive way.The appearance of his father's ghost sparked a fire inside of Hamlet; he took it upon himself to avenge his father's death; a deed that he would not be able to complete if he committed suicide. Hamlet's Christian beliefs m ay have held him back from an untimely death at first but his craving for revenge overpowered everything else, driving him to live on. Hamlet was not the only person that struggled with his life and developed a disturbed psyche, the most notable character being Ophelia.Many factors led to Ophelia's death, one of the reasons being Hamlet's so-called fake craziness which drove him to ruin his relationship with Ophelia, but it wasn't the only factor that led to her downfall. Ophelia's father and brother, warned her against Hamlet, and even though she heeded their warning it led to her ultimate demise. Some people speculate that Ophelia was pregnant and in the Elizabethan era that this play takes place; suicide was the preferred method of â€Å"abortion† or a solution to premarital sex.Preceding Ophelia's death, she was in a mental state of distress and disturbance; this may have been a reason that led to her death. She may have viewed suicide as the only escape from her cruel, h arsh life after Hamlet denied her and after the death of her father; taking into account that her death may have been an accident. She was given a very forced funeral, the priest even stating that, â€Å"As we have warrantise: her death was doubtful. †(Act V, Sc. 1) Had her death been truly recognized as a suicide she would not have received a burial and her body most likely would have been left in the river to rot.The death of Ophelia was devastating to Hamlet, for when he heard of her death and saw her pale body in the casket, he admitted to Laertes and the clown that he did in fact love Ophelia. This deepened his depression, but strengthened his need to avenge his father. The controversy behind her death and the mock funeral that was held for her only further led Hamlet to lose faith in humanity and his own life. One of the greatest obstacles Hamlet faced was how he was going to avenge a murder without committing a crime.Although he wanted to avenge his father’s dea th, he did not want to do so under circumstantial evidence, he wanted to be completely sure that Claudius was the culprit. He underwent his plan by persuading the troupe to perform a play reenacting the killing of King Hamlet. Claudius' sudden departure from the room proved to Hamlet that his suspicions were true. This incident pushed Hamlet closer to death. His thoughts and conscience were clouded by the need to kill his father's murderer. Hamlet believed that if he committed this act he would find his resolve.He believed that he could not leave the world without finishing this task, but once he had done this, there would be nothing more except his questionable Christian faith and fear of the unknown to keep him in the light and away from the darkness; which in the end might not have been enough. Hamlet's iconic quote, â€Å"To be, or not to be: that is the question,† (Act III, Sc. 1) is the greatest example of his suicidal debate. Hamlet questions why it is not a common act for people to commit suicide, for individuals to escape reality and their current problems.He cannot fathom why a person would endure the tragedies of life throughout the years and whether it is nobler to do so or nobler to end it all. Albeit his Christian beliefs, Hamlet believes that the real reason is fear of the unknown. Death is an intangible force that cannot and will not be explained. Humans fear concepts they do not understand, so they would not willfully venture into unknown territory. One cannot foresee what lies beyond death, heaven, hell or nothingness and Hamlet realizes this, posing the question, â€Å"For in that sleep of death what dreams may come. †(Act III, Sc. ) Individuals feel they must attain truth and sanctity from their lives and ultimately our consciences get the better of us. â€Å"†¦conscience does make cowards of us all†¦ thus the native hue of resolution / Is sicklied o’er with the pale cast of thought. †(Act III, Sc. 1) T he events that occurred around Hamlet may have pushed him towards the brink of death, but they also allowed him to realize that life was worth living. Avenging his father's death was Hamlet's prime purpose in the play. He believed that if he in fact did commit â€Å"self-slaughter† that his father would have died in vain.His duty in life from then on was to investigate Claudius and avenge his father. During his return to Denmark, after being forced to leave, Hamlet witnesses Fortinbras and his army on their way to defeat King Claudius and reclaim their pride and power. Despite Fortinbras being an enemy of his country, Hamlet sees how ambitious and driven the man is. This allows Hamlet to realize that life is precious and that if Fortinbras can have that amount of motivation, so can he. â€Å"Witness this army of such mass and charge / Led by a delicate and tender prince / Whose spirit with divine ambition puff'd. †(Act IV, Sc. ) He now possesses a new goal that he feel s he must complete; warn his country of the Norwegians attack. Death overtook the entire kingdom of Denmark and Hamlet's entire family. The final scene of the play when Hamlet fights Laertes shows the internal corruption of the family and the kingdom. In a sense every person that died in the play committed suicide. Laertes' scheme with Claudius backfired on him and his death was caused by being slashed with his own poisonous blade. Gertrude drank the poisonous drink and although she was not aware of the poison she drank the drink willfully, even after being told by Claudius not to.Claudius died from his own poisonous sword, albeit it was forcefully thrust into his chest by Hamlet, he was without a doubt murdered by his own plan. Hamlet delayed his quest for vengeance and almost ran away from his mission; this delay led to his battle with Laertes and ultimately his demise. The sight of Hamlet dying made Horatio consider following him, he wanted to drink the poison and follow his frie nd into the afterlife, even if he did commit â€Å"self-slaughter†, the death of his friend was too much to bear, but Hamlet convinced him otherwise, so he may tell his story for years to come. But let it be. Horatio, I am dead / Thou livest; report me and my cause aright / To the unsatisfied. †(Act V, Sc. 2) These deaths left a bad taste in the mouth of the kingdom of Denmark and displayed the true colors of the royal family. From the beginning Hamlet and his family were on the path that would eventually lead them to their end. With the death of King Hamlet and the incestuous marriage of Claudius and Gertrude, Hamlet's life and the fate of the kingdom spiraled into madness. The play ended in various deaths and tragedies representing the true significance of suicide in the play of Hamlet.

What Does Patriotism Mean to Me

The very definition of patriotism cannot simply be defined by a dictionary. In fact, no two people you meet will have the same explanation of what it means to them. From America’s Founding Fathers to courageous everyday heroes serving in our military at home and overseas, patriotism fills their hearts with the will to protect our country’s freedom. Patriotism is an immeasurable personal characteristic shown by unselfish acts in which a person serves their country and its people.I believe love for all people is why Neil Armstrong stated the infamous phrase, â€Å"One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. † However, planting the US flag gave every engineer, fellow astronauts and millions of citizens on earth, an overflowing sense of pride to be an American. This act of not only symbolizes we were the first nation to visit the moon, but unified a patriotic spirit held deep inside us all. In my opinion, Mr. Armstrong recognizing the efforts of everyone at N ASA and the support of all Americans in one sentence was genius, and very patriotic.During World War II, there was a vast shortage of workers needed to produce munitions supplies to help the Allies win the war. Out of love for their men put in harm’s way, millions of women stepped up answering the call for their country. This grueling hard skilled labor included building ships, aircraft, vehicles and weaponry. What would you call the desire which filled their hearts, giving them strength and bravery to do so called man’s work?I would declare these women were just as patriotic as the 400,000 women served in the armed forces and 460 who lost their lives. Patriotism is in all our hearts, which is where I think â€Å"Red-Blooded Americans† clichà ©, must derive. From early colonists fighting the tyranny of England rule to fallen well known-veterans like Pat Tillman, they were driven by a common bond. You and I may not realize it within ourselves, but the most unsel fish act for one’s country or fellow people, can awaken the patriotism in all of us. What Does Patriotism Mean to Me The very definition of patriotism cannot simply be defined by a dictionary. In fact, no two people you meet will have the same explanation of what it means to them. From America’s Founding Fathers to courageous everyday heroes serving in our military at home and overseas, patriotism fills their hearts with the will to protect our country’s freedom. Patriotism is an immeasurable personal characteristic shown by unselfish acts in which a person serves their country and its people.I believe love for all people is why Neil Armstrong stated the infamous phrase, â€Å"One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.† However, planting the US flag gave every engineer, fellow astronauts and millions of citizens on earth, an overflowing sense of pride to be an American. This act of not only symbolizes we were the first nation to visit the moon, but unified a patriotic spirit held deep inside us all. In my opinion, Mr. Armstrong recognizing the efforts of everyone at NA SA and the support of all Americans in one sentence was genius, and very patriotic.During World War II, there was a vast shortage of workers needed to produce munitions supplies to help the Allies win the war. Out of love for their men put in harm’s way, millions of women stepped up answering the call for their country. This grueling hard skilled labor included building ships, aircraft, vehicles and weaponry. What would you call the desire which filled their hearts, giving them strength and bravery to do so called man’s work?I would declare these women were just as patriotic as the 400,000 women served in the armed forces and 460 who lost their lives. Patriotism is in all our hearts, which is where I think â€Å"Red-Blooded Americans† clichà ©, must derive. From early colonists fighting the tyranny of England rule to fallen well known-veterans like Pat Tillman, they were driven by a common bond. You and I may not realize it within ourselves, but the most unself ish act for one’s country or fellow people, can awaken the patriotism in all of us.

Gilgamesh and Odysseus Essay

Odysseus main challenge is to help defeat the Trojans in the battle of the Trojan horse. All the men who survived the war and the sea were safely back at home, other than Odysseus, he still had a long journey ahead of him. In the beginning of his journey, his challenge was brought upon him by the powerful God of the sea Poseidon. Poseidon became Odysseus enemy after a Cyclops held him and his crewmates captive. After escaping the Cyclops, Odysseus blinded it with fire and his sword. The Cyclops was the son of Poseidon, after telling his dad what happened Poseidon became full of rage and swore to Odysseus that he would pay for what he had done, and he would wander the seas for ten years as his punishment. After leaving the island of the Cyclops, Odysseus encountered Aeolus, who gave him a bag of winds that would have directed him back to Ithaca. However, one of the crewmembers was anxious to see what was in the bag, that he opened the bag while Odysseus was sleeping. Seeing that Odysseus was the only one that was directed to open the bag this caused terrible winds to come out which blew the men further off course. After many other challenges, at sea Odysseus ended up the only survivor. A few days later, he came to the island of the goddess Calypso; she fell madly in love with him, and held captive on her island for seven years. Upon that seventh year things started to change for Odysseus. Athena, daughter of Zeus and Odysseus’ protector, discussed his fate with the other gods that who assembled in Zeus’ home. All of the gods besides Poseidon sympathized with Odysseus, because of what he did to his son. Zeus however told the God Hermes to tell Calypso to let him go and give him a raft, food, and clothing for his journey to Ithaca; this did not settle will with Poseidon. Poseidon again wrecked Odysseus’ raft and which led him to have to swim to an island naked and exhausted. He woke with laughing women around him, who took Odysseus to meet there parents. They later found out who he was and his role in the Trojan war and helped him on his journey back home. A few more things that took place in his journey back home. When Odysseus finally got home back to Ithaca to be with his family he appreciated what he left behind even more. Odysseus when through many tests, all physically, mental, and emotional but he still survived and overcame his adversities. A woman- a goddess formed Enkidu from clay, by the name of  Aruru. A woman (Shamhat) seduced Enkidu. Gilgamesh sent Shamhat, the harlot to Enkidu as a gift but Enkidu was too full of himself to understand the depth and implications of it. The intercourse was for six days and seven nights. Shamhat was supposedly helped Enkidu become a man and a civilized human being. They learned that the love of a woman was valued above all others. In conclusion, the main comparisons between the journeys of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey were men facing several trials and tribulations that women had been the main cause of the problems and challenges. In Gilgamesh, Enkidu had challenges from the goddess and in Odyssey; Odysseus had challenges from the gods and goddess.

An evaluation of the impact of social policy in relation to childhood poverty since 1997

Introduction This essay considers the effects of government policy on child poverty since 1997. This date represents both a high and low point of the war against child poverty. On the one hand, poverty and inequality were at their most serious in post-war history, with over one in four children living in relative poverty; on the other hand, it saw child poverty come into focus like never before, leading to the development of some of the most ambitious new targets, the most notable of which was the commitment to completely ‘eradicate’ child poverty within 10-20 years (Hills and Stewart 2005). All policies must go through several stages, called the policy cycle. There are numerous different conceptions of the policy cycle, each with slightly different stages. This essay will concentrate on the four main ones: agenda setting (problem identification), policy formation, policy implementation, and post-policy evaluation. The chronological sequence of the policy cycle given above provides t he rough structure for this essay; however, on occasion policies are discussed with reference to all stages of the cycle. This essay begins with a brief background section in order to frame the discussion. It concludes by arguing that on the whole government policy has been relatively successful in combating child poverty across the policy cycle, but that there are several areas of weakness requiring improvement. The notion that child poverty should be a major area of government policy is relatively modern. Historically, children have tended to fall under the care of the immediate or extended family, or under unusual circumstances someone entrusted with their care from the community or social group of the parents. However, this norm has been revised in recent years, leading to a change in the effective definition of ‘caring’, which has been expanded to include care by social workers, nurses and doctors, nursery assistants, teachers, and others (Eisenstadt 2011). The very concept of poverty itself has also varied greatly over time. The important cornerstones of modern policy related to mental and psychological wellbeing are fairly recent in origin. By contrast, Victorian campaigners against child poverty focused on bodily, or physical, problems, as embodied in the period by ragged and starving children. By the mid-20th century many other issues were in vogue. For example, child poverty began to include deficits of education caused by socio-economic problems and learning disabilities. It also began to take into account social ills such as exclusion, asylum seeking, and refugee status among children. In 1997, poverty Government policy since the late-1990s has incorporated all these elements (Eisenstadt 2011). Prior to 1997 childhood has been described by some as a ‘policy free zone’ (Eisenstadt 2011), where goals and objectives were largely hidden from view, being established primarily in office by outside experts. Since then, however, there is a strong consensus that in the early stages of the policy cycle the government has been successful in its approach to child poverty. Agenda setting in particular has been on the rise perhaps since the early- to mid-1990s across many departments and in the core of government. For example, policy debates have been a regular occurrence on many topics regarding child poverty, including cash incomes and services, as well as long-term factors underlying disadvantage and survival chances for children. This represents an impressive degree of cross-policy linkages in the government’s approach. Moreover, it is argued that this has translated into concrete results in policy terms. As Bradshaw and Bennett (2014: 5) put it: ‘the use of targets has been prolific, with those on poverty and social exclusion some of the most high profile.’ This claim is well-supported by the evidence, and several prominent cases can be cited. Take, for example, the commitment to reduce relative child poverty by 25% by 2004-5 and by 50% by 2010-11, as well as to completely ‘eradicate’ it within twenty years (by 2020) – or more pessimistically to be ‘amongst the best in Europe’ (Bradshaw and Bennett 2014: 6). The latter is among the most enduring of government promises regarding child poverty. Additionally, there is the so-called neighbourhood renewal strategy, which laid out the government’s intention that within 10 to 20 years no one would be seriously disadvantaged by where they live. Bradshaw and Bennett (2014: 7) contend that ‘such targ ets (for example, in the annual Opportunity for All reports) involve the Government holding itself to account in a way that few predecessors have done.’ This suggests that at the level of agenda setting there has been considerable success in combating child poverty, but there are also many omissions in the way the government has approached important issues. For example, child poverty might arguably have suffered as a result of the conspicuously small number of targets for overall poverty reduction, as the two are strongly interrelated. It is also questionable whether the targets and agenda setting initiatives have translated to policy formation (Bradshaw and Bennett 2014; Lupton et al. 2013; Hill and Stewart 2005). Before proceeding to discuss this issue, a note of caution should be issued about the usefulness of policy in the first place. Lupton et al. (2013: 17) highlight some of the issues inherent in policy commitments: They note, for example, that goals are in actuality mere promises, or claims, which are unenforceable in both practice and theory. Moreover, it is likely under many circumstances that these will be driven by ideo logical agendas, which will shape change according to which party is in power, ‘and be more or less shaped by the legacy inherited, the particular problems of the moment, or fiscal pressures. They may be more or less explicit and discernible. Unstated goals, some of which later become apparent from internal documentary evidence and politicians or civil servants’ Lupton et al. (2013: 17). Indeed, it is for this reason that scholars working in this field tend to evaluate what Lupton et al. (2013) call ‘realised policy’ rather than policy in a broader sense (Bradshaw and Bennett 2014). There is evidence that this concern – that is, ostensible policy not translating into realised policy – has characterised much of the government’s approach to child poverty, rending it unsuccessful to a degree. For instance, it was only in 2012 that the (Social Mobility and) Child Poverty Commission was appointed. This meant that the body could not be consulted prior to the publication of the Child Poverty Strategy for 2011-14. This contravened the government’s statutory commitment and can be seen as evidence that policy has not necessarily been realised, to use Lupton et al.’s (2013) terminology. Importantly, this had concrete implications for the Child Poverty Strategy for 2011-14, which was widely criticised from not laying out in enough detail that actual means by which policy objectives would be achieved (Bradshaw and Bennett 2014). There are other reasons to believe that agenda setting so far has lacked specificity regarding how it will deal with child poverty. This conclusion emerges through a close examination of the policy statements of government publication and the results following from these policies. For example, the Department for Education posts a statement on its website reading: ‘Poverty, as measured by a household’s income relative to the national average, is often a symptom of deeper, more complex problems. Many of these problems are passed on from one generation to the next.’ As Bradshaw and Bennett (2014) note, the ‘background’ section state that one of its primary aims is ‘reducing poverty in all its forms’, and references social injustice, but does little to directly address the issue of child poverty. The website for the Department for work and Pensions does likewise, noting the existence of a child poverty strategy and the Positive for Youth Repo rt (2011) but failing to specify what this entails in terms of policy (Bradshaw and Bennett 2014; Forest and Parton 2009). This shows that to a certain extent there has been a disconnect between the early stages of the policy cycle (agenda and target setting) and the later one (policy formation). It can also be argued that the government’s approach to dealing with child poverty has been inadequate at the level of policy formation. There has tended to be a great deal of emphasis on the idea of encouraging unemployed parents to work in order that they may better support their children. While this is commendable in several obvious respects, it also has shortcomings. Bucci (cited in Forest and Parton 2009), for example, emphasises the importance of internal factors in children’s lives and downplays the external factors that are usually emphasised by officials and practitioners of policy. This suggests, therefore, the inclusion of many more people in the work force might actually worsen poverty of a social and emotional kind by depriving children of their parents for extended periods. Another strategy employed to end child poverty has come in the form of the Sure Start Centres, the stated aim of which is to ‘improve the outcomes for all children’ (Department of Education 2008). However, the attention paid to child poverty specifically was conspicuously lacking. For example, the first brief concentrated on the objective of ‘helping prevent family breakdown and promoting readiness for schools’, which only has an indirect relationship to child poverty and arguably should not have been prioritised over alternatives, such as the provision of financial support. In addition to the educational component, the Sure Start programme is largely geared around encouraging more parents to work. The government places the promotion of employment and education at the centre of its child poverty policy, as revealed in its description of Sure Start as ‘a cornerstone of the Government’s drive to tackle child poverty and social exclusion’ (D epartment of Education 2008) This is supported by a number of groups, including the Institute for Public Policy Research, which argued that ‘social inclusion is best promoted though enhanced employment opportunity’ and that ‘‘poverty and deprivation in children’s families and in their neighbourhoods is associated with their performance at school’ (Oppenheim, 1998: 113, 139). There is also support for this policy direction from the European Commission (2014), which argued that the most important priorities for reducing child poverty are to ‘improve access to affordable early childhood education and care services’ and to ‘support parents’ access to the labour market and make sure that work ‘pays’ for them’ (European Commission 2014). It might reasonably be claimed, therefore, that while the policy formulation as regards child poverty is indirect, its efficacy in ameliorating child poverty is supported in the literature. This gives credibility to the Sure Start programme, which represents not just successful policy formulation but also the successful implementation of policy initiatives (Lupton 2013). The noticeable educational improvements among children and young people reflect the efficacy of these policies, and it has been argued that they show the success of child poverty reduction measures. For example, results in national tests at 11 and 16 indicated great improvements and few people were leaving school with no qualifications by 2010 (Lupton 2013). Socio-economic gaps were reduced across all indicators – incrementally at age 11 and then more distinctly at age 16. Larger number remained at school after the age of 16 and more went to higher education. Socio-economic gaps in HE access also closed slightly despite concerns to the contrary (Lupton 2013). On the other hand, it has also been argued (e.g., by the European Commission) that the UK has so far not done enough on these fronts in order to combat child poverty. This suggests that while policy formulation might therefore be on the right track, the implementation has not yet gone far enough (European Commission 2014). On the whole, policy formulation has generally been lauded. Education Maintenance Allowances, for example, have complemented the Sure Start programme discussed above. More important have been the tax and benefit reforms, which Hills and Steward (2005) argue have ‘reduced child poverty quickly enough to give the Government a good chance of hitting its 2004-05 targets.’ This is a dated analysis, but it indicates that in the decade after 1997 policy was relatively successful. The importance of changes in incomes for parents and their children, moreover, is borne out by the Families and Children Survey, as well as other interviews conducted in low-income areas (Hills and Stewart 2005). Nevertheless, while there has been a fall in relative child poverty between 1996-7 and 2002-3, and falls in deprivation and child-related spending by parents, the UK is still some way behind the EU average (Hills and Stewart 2005; also see European Commission 2014) There has been considerable research into the effect of Labour’s efforts to alleviate child poverty, primarily because they have been in office for much of the period and have been the main drivers behind such initiatives. The Labour government’s record has been positive on many fronts. Health is closely related to poverty, and in these terms the life expectancy of children rose, with infant mortality declining and illness declining, between 1997 and 2010 (Vizard and Obolenskaya 2013). This is supported by Stewart (2013), who has noted that for young children in particular outcomes as a result of Labour’s policies improved markedly, with higher employment rates for lone parents and fewer mothers drinking and smoking during pregnancies (the tangible impact of this is reflected in a fall in low birth weights among infants); moreover, the improvements here were concentrated among the lower socio-economic groups, which suggests relative poverty declined (Stewart 2013 ). For older children and young people, results in national tests at 11and 16 showed substantial improvements and hardly anyone was leaving school with no qualifications by 2010. Socio-economic gaps closed on all indicators –gradually at age 11 and more dramatically at age 16. Greater proportions stayed on at school after 16 and went to higher education, and socio-economic gaps in HE access closed slightly despite concerns to the contrary (Lupton and Obolenskaya 2013). Some particular shortcomings of policy have been highlighted by the research, however. For example, research into child poverty arising from neglect and abuse has revealed policy failure at all levels of the policy cycle. The neglect, abuse and eventual death of Victoria Climbe in 2000 is a good example of a policy failure in the period under consideration (Forest and Parton 2009; Laming 2003). Older children have often been classified as ‘hard to help’ and failed by agencies, while long-term neglect cases have on occasion not been properly contextualised in terms of past events in children’s lives. Additionally, there has tended to be an overreliance on universal or adult social service for physically injured children rather than the more appropriate children social care. As Brandon (2008) notes, these are reflective of policy failures in this particular area at the levels of formation, implementation, and post-policy evaluation. At the final level of the policy cycle, evaluation, there has been some criticism of policy. In particular, March and Fisher (2005: 4) highlight ‘strong arguments for the development of the evidence base, and for shifting social services towards an evidence-based approach, instead of its historic reliance on an ‘authority-based’ approach. These arguments run similarly to those suggesting that healthcare needs more of an evidence-based approach (for example, the 1997 report for the DH on R&D in primary care) (Forest and Parton 2009). In this respect, it could be argued that policy has been less effective than it might have been because the research driving it has been conducted in the wrong way. It might even be said that improvements in this area required looking to the past: As Marsh and Fisher (2005: 5) put it: ‘Despite this lack of strategy, social work research has occasionally made a significant impact’. They point to the example of the childcare research programme that was shaped by the DH during the 1980s. This led to a cogent set of policies on many critical issues and helped to make policy more focused on relevance and practical matters.. Nevertheless, this ‘did not address the question of the infrastructure for research relevant to social care’ (Marsh and Fisher 2005: 5). In a sense, these failures of policy at the final stage bring the argument full circle back to the level of agenda setting and policy formation. Marsh and Fisher (2005) and Morrin et al. (2011) see the issue as a lack of a strategic framework, which impedes agenda setting from the outset and prevents re-evaluative improvement at the end. The fact that no publicly funded research body is in place makes this more difficult, ‘and the plethora of relevant bodies has not so far offered a unified voice that could command widespread support. Unclear academic roots complicate the process’ (Marsh and Fisher 2005: 15). It might be argued that this comes down to the problem that social care does not exist as an independent academic discipline (Morrin et al. 2011; Forest and Parton 2009). In conclusion, it can be said that the impact of government policy on child poverty has been mixed. On the one hand, many important and varied issues, ranging from education to financial hardship and psychological trauma, have been brought under the government remit. This represents a success in terms of agenda setting. A large number of influential programmes have taken form across the spectrum, and these have been implemented with reasonable success in many cases, as indicated by the fact that child poverty has declined since 1997 by nearly 10 percent (Forest and Parton 2009). To a certain degree, it is too early to tell whether evaluation has been successful. There have, of course, been various shortcomings such as the inability of policy to adequately protect abused children. Detractors have also claimed that policy, despite being relatively successful, has not been based on evidence. In the end, the record of government policy is generally good, although there is clearly scope f or improvement going forwards. References: Bradshaw, J. and Bennett, F. (2014) Investing in Children: Breaking the cycle of disadvantage: A Study of National Policies: The United Kingdom, European Commission http://www.york.ac.uk/inst/spru/research/pdf/Naps2013Investing.pdf [Retrieved 22/06/2014] Brandon, M. (2008) Analysing child deaths and serious injury through abuse and neglect, Centre for Research on Children and Families http://www.uea.ac.uk/centre-research-child-family/child-protection-and-family-support/analysing-child-deaths [Retrieved 22/06/2014] Cleaver, H. and Walker, S. (2004) Assessing Children’s Needs and Circumstances: The Impact of the Assessment Framework, London: Jessica Kingsley Department for Education (2008) Sure Start Children’s Centres – good for your child and good for you http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130401151715/http://www.education.gov.uk/publications/standard/Surestart/Page1/DCSF-00787-2008 [Retrieved 22/06/2014] Department of Health (1997) R&D in primary care, London: The Stationery Office European Commission (2014) Investing in children http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1060&langId=en [Retrieved 22/06/2014] Eisenstadt, N. (2011), Providing a Sure Start: How Government Discovered Early Childhood. Bristol: Policy Press Forest, N. and Parton, N. (2009) Understanding children’s social care: politics, policy and practice London: SAGE Hills, J. and Stewart, K. (2005) POLICIES TOWARDS POVERTY, INEQUALITY AND EXCLUSION SINCE 1997, Joseph Rowntree Foundation http://www.jrf.org.uk/publications/policies-towards-poverty-inequality-and-exclusion-1997 [Retrieved 22/06/2014] HM Government (2006) Working Together to Safeguard Children: A guide to inter-agency working to safeguard and promote the welfare of children, Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills http://www.justice.gov.uk/downloads/youth-justice/improving-practice/WT2006-Working-together.pdf [Retrieved 22/06/2014] HM Government (2004) Every Child Matters: Change for Children Programme. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills www.everychildmatters.gov.uk [Retrieved 22/03/2014] Laming, H. (2003) The Victoria Climbie Inquiry https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/273183/5730.pdf [Retrieved 22/06/2014] Lupton, R., Burchardt, T, Hills, J. Stewart, K. and Vizard, P. (2013) A Framework for Analysing the Effects of Social Policy, Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/dps/case/spcc/rn001.pdf [Retrieved 22/06/2014] Lupton, R. (2013) Labour’s Social Policy Record: Policy, Spending and Outcomes 1997-2010, Centre for Analysis and Social Exclusion http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/dps/case/spcc/RR01.pdf [Retrieved 22/06/2014] Marsh, P. and Fisher, M. (2005) Developing the evidence base for social work and social care practice, Social Care Institute for Excellence http://www.scie.org.uk/publications/reports/report10.pdf [Retrieved 22/06/2014] Morrin, M., Johnson, S., Heron, L. and Roberts, E. (2011) CONCEPTUAL IMPACT OF ESRC RESEARCH: CASE STUDY OF UK CHILD POVERTY POLICY, Final Report to Economic and Social Research Council http://www.esrc.ac.uk/_images/Conceptual_impact_study_report_tcm8-18146.pdf [Retrieved 22/06/2014] Stewart, K. (2013) Labour’s Record on the Under-Fives: Policy Spending and Outcomes 1997-2010. Social Policy in a Cold Climate Working Paper. London: CASE Vizard, P. and Obolenskaya, P. (2013) Labour’s Record on Health: Policy Spending and Outcomes 1997-2010. Social Policy in a Cold Climate Working Paper WP02. London: CASE